In this chapter, we will begin by defining consequentialism, and contrasting it with deontology. Nurses use these in contributing to the resolution of these dilemmas. In practice this a very difficult thing to do to step outside of the values we have been brought up with and the state of being alienated itself often causes unhappiness within the individual. Basel-Vanagaite L, Wolf L, Orin M, et al. Never kill an innocent person or never lie are examples of such rules. You can update your choices at any time in your settings. Accessed October 26, 2018. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies 2005 Oct;25(5):312-27. Robert M. Taylor, in Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 2013 Deontology. The consequence of consequentialism is that by taking an impersonal standpoint we alienate ourselves and whilst the consequentialist can argue that this should be a virtue, the expected result of unhappiness shows its inadequacy for this is a high price to pay for a view that values happiness. The viewpoints expressed in this article are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the AMA. Chan School of Public Health. Managing ongoing swallow safety through information-sharing: An ethnography of speech and language therapists and nurses at work on stroke units. FOIA HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help How Should Clinicians Communicate With Patients About the Roles of Artificially Intelligent Team Members? 2018;12:300. 2007;2(1):26. In: Philosophical Foundations of Medical Law. The happiness of the individual is overridden by the happiness of the masses. ISSN 2376-6980. Bina RW, Langevin JP. FRT systems can store data as a complete facial image or as a facial template.34 Facial templates are considered biometric data and thus personally identifiable information.35 The idea that a photo can reveal private health information is relatively new, and privacy regulations and practices are still catching up. P2. The Survival Lottery thought experiment highlights that there are actions which we consider morally right or wrong regardless of the amount of happiness or welfare produced. We've updated our privacy policy. To this objection, the consequentialist can protest that alienation can be a virtue. The site is secure. Accessed December 10, 2018. On the other, FRT medication adherence monitoring might not be sufficiently effective in improving adherence to outweigh the risk of undermining trust in the patient-physician relationship.42. The nature and extent of these effects, and whether they will be harmful or beneficial, will vary regionally and over time. You must recall and relate knowledge of how the professionals in the case studies promote equality and diversity and the skills and attributes needed to do this.. 25 (4). This is a worldview without tragedy or realism. (Cf. An interpretive exploratory study was undertaken, 11 registered acute care nurses working in a district general hospital in England were interviewed, using semi-structured interviews. It presents Utilitarianism as characterised by the following five features: (1) consequentialism, (2) welfarism, (3) equality of moral status and impartiality, (4) maximisation, (5) aggregation. Nurses' experiences of providing ethical care to the patients with COVID-19: A phenomenological study. 14,15 Another major area for FRT applications in health care is patient identification and monitoring, such . When expanded it provides a list of search options that will switch the search inputs to match the current selection. For a summary of consequentialist ethics check out the videos below: Our next stop in our tour of the ethical lay of the land is utilitarianism. A person should do whatever leads to the best consequence. Pers Soc Psychol Bull. Moore 1912, chs. There are two broad schools of ethical theory: consequentialism and non-consequentialism. Nurses experiences of ethical dilemmas: A review. If all we are concerned with is getting good outcomes, this can seem to justify harming some people in order to benefit others. If the outcome is good, how one achieved the outcome is not that important. The question that concerns me, is, to what extent is a normative theory, consequentialism in particular, constrained by requirements that stem from When deciding on questions of what is ethically right or wrong utilitarians want to maximise the overall amount of happiness or welfare. In this case, they would argue that welfare would be maximised by giving the last ventilator to the 20 year old. I intend to show that expecting individuals to take an impersonal standpoint in a decision that so greatly affects them is unrealistic and leads to alienation. Design: 2014 Nov;40(11):1529-42. doi: 10.1177/0146167214551154. Rather than taking into account our own attitudes towards an action, by taking an objective standpoint we are able to remove ourselves from our usual social groups and ideologies which affect the way in which we act and look at a situation, and instead we should act without bias. 2000 Mar;2(1):29-41. September 6, 2017. https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2017/09/06/ten-things-everyone-should-know-about-machine-learning. 124). MedCity News. Instead, it is being driven by patients, who are increasingly turning into consumers. Counselling and bespoke consulting programs to help you make better decisions and navigate complexity. But it's more than just one rival among many, for every plausible moral theory must concede that the goodness of an act's consequences is something that matters even if it's not the only thing that matters. March 2018. https://medium.com/ibm-watson-data-lab/keeping-your-machine-learning-models-up-to-date-f1ead546591b. In this particular case, a foreign power decides to hear the cries of the oppressed and begins to lend its diplomatic and political support to make a moral claim for whatever sort of intervention to resolve the conflict. Front Psychol. National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health. Now customize the name of a clipboard to store your clips. For a theory often touted as promoting happiness, this is a problem. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the The author(s) had no conflicts of interest to disclose. The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) of 2008, for example, does not apply to FRT for genetic diagnosis, as FRT does not fit GINAs definition of genetic testing or genetic information.39 The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, which protects people with disabilities from discrimination in public life (eg, schools or employment),40 would also likely not apply to FRT used for diagnostic purposes if the conditions diagnosed are currently unexpressed. The other concern people express is the tendency of consequentialism to use ends justify the means logic. Consequentialism is a type of normative ethical theory which states that the moral quality of an action is completely determined by its consequences, and nothing else. Computer-based recognition of dysmorphic faces. One does not have to be a specialist in ethics to do so. Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008, Pub L No. A novel approach to the detection of acromegaly: accuracy of diagnosis by automatic face classification. The principle of utilitarianism invites us to consider the immediate and the less immediate consequences of our actions. P2. It is one of the main causes of preventable blindness in young children from developing countries. The lack of respect for the integrity of the individual is raised by Bernard Williams famous Jim and the Indians thought experiment, quoted above. In other words, the morally right action is the one that produces the greatest amount of happiness or welfare. December 9, 2017. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320316.php. 1992 Fall;21(4):354-89. As FRT becomes capable of detecting a wider range of health conditions, such as behavioral24 or developmental disorders,25 health care organizations and software developers will need to decide which types of analyses should be included in a FRT system and the conditions under which patients might need to be informed of incidental findings. Our Biometric Future: Facial Recognition Technology and the Culture of Surveillance. Our work is only made possible because of you. Putting ethics at the centre of everyday life. No other adults or swimmers are anywhere to be seen, so without your help the child will drown. But in Jims case his pain at killing one person is a relatively minor consideration when the very lives of nineteen others (and the happiness of their families and friends) is at stake. The effects of a person's actions judge if it was right or wrong. So, if Oliver had a wide network of adoring cat lovers because of his friendly, playful nature, unlike Benjy who prefers a life of peaceful solitude I should save Oliver as this would cause the least pain and produce the most pleasure for the people that know him. Religion plays a large part in the ethical issue of abortion, just like with . Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. The theory is also impartial. This helps prevent a surge of infected patients in the existing healthcare facilities. Any prior commitments are disregarded or, if taken into consideration, are unlikely to have any substantial effect on the outcome. FRT tools that assist with identification, monitoring, and diagnosis are expected to play a prominent role in the future of health care.6,18 Some applications have already been implemented.13,19 As FRT is increasingly utilized in health care settings, informed consent will need to be obtained not only for collecting and storing patients images but also for the specific purposes for which those images might be analyzed by FRT systems.20 In particular, patients might not be aware that their images could be used to generate additionally clinically relevant information. FRT raises novel challenges regarding privacy. Act consequentialism is the claim that an act is morally right if and only if that act maximizes the good, that is, if and only if the total amount of good for all minus the total amount of bad for all is greater than this net amount for any incompatible act available to the agent on that occasion. (Though, most versions of non-consequentialism allow some ethical relevance of consequences). Aggregative Consequentialism = which consequences are best is some function of the values of parts of those consequences (as opposed to rankings of whole worlds or sets of consequences). One famous way of putting this is 'the greatest good for the greatest number of people'.. Let us take the example of a minority being oppressed in a country. Viewed from a consequentialist perspective, one of the primary purposes of an organizational ethics program is to ensure that the organization is not penalized for the actions of its individual employees and to avoid the bad consequences that might result from such actions (e.g., fines, lawsuits, etc). The more good consequences an act produces, the better or more right that act. Imagine you are in your local park feeding the ducks on the pond when you hear a loud splash; a child has fallen into the pond and is struggling to swim. However, having evolved from a set of Christian values and principles, it retains certain deontological characteristics. An official website of the United States government. By signing up you agree to our privacy policy. Consequentialism is a normative ethics theory whereby the ends justify the means; in other words, the consequence of an action justifies the moral acceptability of an action of the means taken to reach that end. The site is secure. The most famous form of consequentialist ethics is utilitarianism which was first proposed by Jeremy Bentham and then furthered by John Stuart Mill in the 19th century. 8600 Rockville Pike Reimagining Medical Education in the Age of AI, Steven A. Wartman, MD, PhD and C. Donald Combs, PhD. Finally, Mill also claims that happiness is the only thing that is desirable in itself as an end. Face recognition methods and applications. Healthcare workers often face a problem of decision - making. FRT is being developed to predict health characteristics, such as longevity and aging.13 FRT is also being applied to predict behavior, pain, and emotions by identifying facial expressions associated with depression or pain, for example.14,15 Another major area for FRT applications in health care is patient identification and monitoring, such as monitoring elderly patients for safety or attempts to leave a health care facility16 or monitoring medication adherence through the use of sensors and facial recognition to confirm when patients take their medications.17. In broad terms, a hedonist is someone who tries to maximise pleasure and minimise pain. Ethical considerations: Ethical approval was obtained from the local National Research Ethics Committee. There are several varieties of utilitarianism. Deontology is a system of ethical analysis, most closely associated with Immanuel Kant, that bases the correctness of one's actions on fulfilling the duties of the actor (Alexander and Moore, 2008).Thus individuals have moral obligations to others and, if they fulfill those obligations, they are acting ethically; if they . consequentialism in what makes the patient and everyone else happy with the outcome, and societal impacts with regards to the distribution of resources and the overall positive outcome to society. Borsos Z, Gyori M. Can automated facial expression analysis show differences between autism and typical functioning? Any consequentialist ethical theory has to provide a justification of how we decide which consequences are good or bad. A study of nurses' ethical climate perceptions: Compromising in an uncompromising environment. Many forms of consequentialism have been proposed that attempt to deal with the issue of comparing moral value. Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, Pub L No. Julian Savulescu and Dominic Wilkinson 2019. Philos Ethics Humanit Med. Researchers flag up facial recognition racial bias [news]. Background: PHI 204 - Ethical Issues in Health Care: Consequentialism, Deontology, Physical Education and Health Education Faculty. government site. Handb Clin Neurol. You can read the details below. Among the most prominent approaches to ethics within philosophy is a highly influential position known as consequentialism. Youve read one of your four complimentary articles for this month. Does the pain that Jim would feel not need to be taken into account when looking at the best overall outcome? To have complete access to the thousands of philosophy articles on this site, please, Jim finds himself in the central square of a small South American town. Senior Lecturer/ Researcher Anglia Ruskin University UK/ SAMs TT. health. Wellcome TrustFunded Monographs and Book Chapters. J Adv Nurs. It provides criteria and rules for moral evaluation and decision making. http://arxiv.org/abs/1403.0485. It emphasises four key ethical principles of autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice, which are shared by most ethical theories, and blends these with virtues and practical wisdom. Tied up against the wall are a row of twenty Indians, most terrified, a few defiant, in front of them several armed men in uniform. 497 - 516. Indeed, society as a whole is more important than any one person in the eyes of a Utilitarian. In this way, consequentialism ethics provide criteria for the moral evaluation of actions, while also recommending rules or decision-making criteria for future actions. Findings: According to consequentialism, you should always strive to bring about good consequences, rather than simply obeying an arbitrary set of ethical rules. Select Accept to consent or Reject to decline non-essential cookies for this use. Consequentialists may try to respond by arguing that alienation and taking an impersonal standpoint can be a virtue, but this seems a high price to pay if the agent is expected to disregard her most fundamental relationships, leaving her deeply unhappy. On the next ward is Patient A who has a curable disease and also is a suitable donor for the other patients. Therefore, the absolutist claim that war is wholly a bad thing, or that it cannot be for a good cause despite its undesirability, is reasonably refuted. But as previously stated, war and the strife and chaos that comes with it are undesirable; however, in this particular circumstance something that may be bad as war can be said to be a for a good cause. If this is demanded of all moral agents, then general unhappiness is likely to ensue rather than the opposite. Nurs Ethics. 2021 Sep 17;18(18):9786. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18189786. But if telling a lie. With this in mind, people will strive to be morally and ethically good to avoid the . Keywords: Sandolu A. https://oneworldidentity.com/google-takes-aim-controversial-stringent-illinois-biometric-privacy-law/. Certainly, the use of utilitarian ethics in medical contexts is not without controversy and this is something which we shall next by looking at a well-known objection to utilitarianism using a thought experiment: The objection is that by only focusing on objectively promoting the greatest good, utilitarians can permit and indeed claim that certain actions, which appear morally wrong, are in fact the right action. Provide a clear and easy-to-understand guidelines. Accessed October 26, 2018. According to consequentialism, the right act is that act which has the best consequences. Would you like email updates of new search results? While FRT systems in health care can de-identify data, some experts are skeptical that such data can be truly anonymized21; from clinical and ethical perspectives, informing patients about this kind of risk is critical. Wired. An objective measure of whether something is good or bad, and by how much. All Rights Reserved. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Published November 9, 2017. Facial recognition technology (FRT) utilizes software to map a persons facial characteristics and then store the data as a face template.1 Algorithms or machine learning techniques are applied to a database to compare facial images or to find patterns in facial features for verification or authentication purposes.2 FRT is attractive for a variety of health care applications, such as diagnosing genetic disorders, monitoring patients, and providing health indicator information (related to behavior, aging, longevity, or pain experience, for example).3-5, FRT is likely to become a useful tool for diagnosing many medical and genetic conditions.6,7 Machine learning techniques, in which a computer program is trained on a large data set to recognize patterns and generates its own algorithms on the basis of learning,8 have already been used to assist in diagnosing a patient with a rare genetic disorder that had not been identified after years of clinical effort.9 Machine learning can also detect more subtle correlations between facial morphology and genetic disorders than clinicians.4 It is thought that FRT can therefore eventually be used to assist in earlier detection and treatment of genetic disorders,10,11 and computer applications (commonly known as apps) such as Face2Gene have been developed to assist clinicians in diagnosing genetic disorders.12, FRT has other potential health care applications. According to non-consequentialism, the rightness of an action is not solely determined by its consequences. One World Identity. Disclaimer. Epub 2022 Apr 9. When a service user is speaking to a health care professional it is important for them to listen properly, for example not looking around and yawning, instead make eye contact and ensuring body language looks engaging. Participants were recruited from all settings working with patients of any age and any diagnosis. Consumerism in healthcare is not merely about supporting hospitals, insurance companies and other businesses. It is therefore important to weigh the relative benefits and burdens of specific FRT uses in health care and to conduct research into how patients perceive its use. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. Designer Babies: Where Should We Draw the Line? In-depth content analysis of the data was undertaken via NVivo coding and thematic identification. Of course, if Jim refuses, then there is no special occasion, and Pedro here will do what he was about to do when Jim arrived, and kill them all The men against the wall and the other villagers understand the situation, and are obviously begging him to accept. 1-2.) PART 1 . Consequentialism plays a huge role in this scenario as in both cases results of the decision made can be either positive or negative. Consequentialism Consequentialism is an ethical theory that judges whether or not something is right by what its consequences are. Complex and expensive treatment options have increased the frequency and emphasis of ethical decision-making in healthcare. Virtue ethics: focusing on the moral character, or . Human behavior prediction using facial expression analysis. Disregarding our integrity and alienating ourselves from our values and social ideas is likely to result in a life of unhappiness. and transmitted securely. (Feiser) Consequentialism says that the consequences of an action are all that matter when taking an ethical decision to act. The word deontology derives from the Greek words for duty ( deon) and science (or study) of ( logos ). And it gives this general guidance on how to live: People should live so as to maximise good consequences. We will have to remember as a society that, of all the things a person might do at any given moment, the morally right action is the one with the best overall consequences. Implementing machine learning in health careaddressing ethical challenges. Subsequent actions are mediated though ethical decision-making frames of reference including deontology, consequentialism, the ethics of care and virtue ethics. May 17, 2017. https://undark.org/article/facial-recognition-technology-biased-understudied/. She earned a JD from Harvard Law School and a PhD from the University of Chicago in comparative human development. Tap here to review the details. There are rewards if you do something good, and there are repercussions if you do something wrong. In one moment Jim goes from being a tourist in a foreign country to becoming a murderer for the sake of morality. 2022 Jun;22:100717. doi: 10.1016/j.jemep.2021.100717. An action that brings about more benefit than harm is good, while an action that causes more harm than benefit is not. If consequentialism is to take a hedonistic approach that we should act so as to maximise overall happiness then it results in a contradiction. As with any clinical innovation, FRT tools should be expected to demonstrate accuracy for specific uses and to demonstrate that overall benefits outweigh risks.26 Detecting and evaluating bias in data and results should also receive close ethical scrutiny.27 In machine learning, the quality of the results reflects the quality of data input to the system28an issue sometimes referred to as garbage in, garbage out. For example, when images used to train software are not drawn from a pool that is sufficiently racially diverse, the system may produce racially biased results.29 If this happens, FRT diagnostics might not work as well for some racial or ethnic groups as others. FOIA Information, consent, and informed consent. July 2, 2014. https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/can-your-face-reveal-how-long-youll-live-new-technology-may-provide-the-answer/2014/07/02/640bacb4-f748-11e3-a606-946fd632f9f1_story.html. The .gov means its official. Loos HS, Wieczorek D, Wrtz, RP, von der Malsburg C, Horsthemke B. Schneider HJ, Kosilek RP, Gnther M, et al. Tunkelang D. Ten things everyone should know about machine learning. What should he do?Bernard Williams in the book Utilitarianism: For and Against, by J.J.C. Her research focuses on neuroethics as well as the ethics of digital health technology and machine learning with a focus on mental health issues and special populations. Consequentialism teaches that people should do whatever produces the greatest amount of good consequences. If happiness was the experience of pleasure without pain, the most ethical actions were ones that caused the most possible happiness and the least possible pain. JONAS Healthc Law Ethics Regul. By looking at the two ethical strands side-by-side we can quickly see that Deontology is distinctly focused on the individual, whereas Utilitarianism places importance on . Particularly in Italy, where the death toll and strain on hospitals has reached a critical point, there is a policy now to prioritise treating younger patients and healthcare workers. Katy Baker studied Philosophy at the University of Kent and is now part of the Philosophy Now team. AWB. Moral distress was also evident in the literature and findings, with moral dissonance recognised and articulated by more experienced nurses. Facial shape analysis identifies valid cues to aspects of physiological health in Caucasian, Asian, and African populations. The pros and cons of utilitarianism show us that there is a time and place where these principles offer a potential benefit to society. Information. Agera y Arcas B, Todorov A, Mitchell M. Do algorithms reveal sexual orientation or just expose our stereotypes? health goal (including socioeconomic goals) identified by a legitimate public health authority. Sooner or later, after all diplomatic and political channels are exhausted to reach a solution, they begin to take up arms against the oppressor. By continuing to browse the site with cookies enabled in your browser, you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with our privacy policy. Epub 2015 Jan 6. So by treating the individual as merely a means to an end, consequentialism may turn out to be self-defeating. Accessed July 25, 2018. When making ethical decisions within healthcare, the patients must have a clear channel of communication between the health care provider and the patient, as without this the patients wished cannot be taken into consideration. Any consequentialist ethical theory has to provide a justification of how we decide which consequences are good or bad. Knight W. Theres a big problem with AI: even its creators cant explain how it works. Although there are references to this idea in the works of ancient philosopherEpicurus, its closely associated with English philosopherJeremy Bentham. Consequentialism From a consequentialist position the question of whether it is wrong to breach confidentiality is determined by the consequences of the breach. Also, in certain situations, consequentialism can lead to decisions that are objectionable, even though the consequences are arguably good. For instance, most people would agree that lying is wrong. The best-known consequentialist ethical theory is utilitarianism, which says that the wrongness or rightness of an action depends on the amount of overall good or utility that is produced. 2. Consequentialism And Abortion. Careers. Accessed July 25, 2018. What Are Important Ethical Implications of Using Facial Recognition Technology in Health Care? John Stuart Mill, a student of Benthams, disagreed. He believed it was too difficult for a society to run if it had to consider the specific costs/benefits of every single action. Before 2017;242:797-804. This is because all things being equal they will live longer and may contribute more to society over a longer period of time. Nurses require the skills to develop and maintain professional relationships for addressing ethical dilemmas and to engage with political and organisational macro- and micro-decision-making. One doctor speaking to the Business Insider claimed: "If you had, let's say, an ICU that was overwhelmed, you're probably going to try and give some extra attention to healthcare workers because you need them to deliver care," he said. Indeed, no one can know the future with certainty. Consequentialism Deontology (Biomedical Ethics) Charles Lohman. 2017;8:1883. Atlas of human malformation syndromes in diverse populations. J Med Ethics. Consequentialism is an ethical theory that judges whether or not something is right by what its consequences are. Accessed March 28, 2017. Washington Post. Robert Torrance continues a debate, started by Charlotte Blease in an earlier issue of the Journal of Medical Ethics, about what conditions must be met in order for patients to consent to receive electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) ( see page 371 ). [4] Consequentialism I discuss this possibility briefly, and then set it aside. Understanding different ethical theories can have a number of significant benefits, which have the potential to shape and inform the care of patients, challenge bad practice and lead staff to. Williams furthers this explanation; making the best of a bad job is one of its maxims, and it will have something to say even on the difference between massacring seven million, and massacring seven million and one (Consequentialism and its Critics, 1988).
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